The Eastern Market is of of the three original public marketplaces in Pierre L'Enfant's plan for the city. Two pre-existing markets were located in Alexandria and Georgetown. The first Eastern Market, at 7th & L near the Navy Yard, sustained extensive fire damage during the British attack of 1814. After being repaired, it operated until supplies were cut off during the Civil War.

Eastern Market eventually fell into decline and was all but abandoned until 1873, when it was relocated to its current location, housed in a 19th-century brick building designed by Adolf Cluss on 7th Street SE, a few blocks from the U.S. Capitol.

The market downturn following World War II again threatened the Eastern Market. When the DC Government moved to close public markets in the mid-1950's, fish market operator Charles Glasgow, Sr., suggested he assume management responsibility for the market. The Eastern Market Corporation was formed and leased the South and Center Halls, now managed by Eastern Market Ventures. Glasgow's family still operates the fish market. In recent years, the Market has served as a focal point in the revitalization of the Capitol Hill area, making Eastern Market once again a "town center," both politically and commercially.

Eastern Market was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1971. Despite competition from grocery chains, the market has remained open, supported by local residents. Again damaged by fire in 2007, the market reopened in 2009 following an extensive renovation. Eastern Market is the only historic public market building remaining in the District operating with a public market function.